A Qualitative and Biochemical Analysis of Biofloc from an Indoor Biofloc Technology System Culturing Oreochromis Karongae.
Keywords:
Biofloc Technology, Qualitative Analysis, Biochemical Composition, Oreochromis karongae
Abstract
The structure of microbial communities in a Biofloc Technology (BFT) system has great influence on the optimal functioning of the system. This makes understanding the microbial composition in BFT of paramount importance. A study was conducted to characterize the microorganisms in an indoor biofloc technology system. The microorganisms were qualitatively and biochemically analyzed. Qualitative analysis of microorganisms in BFT was carried out using microscopy and plate culture of bacteria and fungi. Isolated bacterial were identified by colony morphology, gram staining and microscopic observation. Catalase test as biochemical test was also used in identifying bacteria. Biochemical analysis of the biofloc was achieved through proximate analysis of nutrients following AOAC (2002) methods. The biofloc sample used in the present study was obtained from culture water of three 1000l circular fiberglass tanks with a working volume of 580l of biofloc water per tank. Oreochromis karongae fingerlings where stocked in the three tanks at a stocking density of 6kg/m3 per tank and cultured for 12weeks. The fish were fed 30% CP on-farm formulated feed (2mm pelleted) with a feeding rate of 1.5% of total estimated fish biomass. Maize flour was added in tanks to maintain an optimum C/N ratio (above 10) for heterotrophic bacteria production. Microscopy of the biofloc water revealed various types of microorganisms which included Protozoa (e.g. ciliates), Zooplanktons (e.g. Rotifers and copepods) and nematodes, heterotrophic bacteria and fungi. It was noted that the bacteria were all heterotrophic bacteria which confirmed their utilisation of organic carbon in the BFT system to produce microbial protein. The biochemical composition of biofloc showed that the nutritional quality of biofloc was appropriate for tilapia with the exception of lipid content which was found to be (3.25%). This value is considered low for aquaculture feed as a range of 5- 10% lipid content in feed is recommended. BFT is a promising field which will enable aquaculture to grow towards an environmentally friendly approach because of the ability of microorganisms to recycle nutrients in the system.References
AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists), 2002. Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Inc., Arlington, USA.
Abowei, J.F.N. and Ekubo, A.T., 2011. Some principles and requirements in fish nutrition. British Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 2(4): 163-179. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-7345.2007.00145.x
Avnimelech, Y., 1999. Carbon/nitrogen ratio as a control element in aquaculture systems. Aquaculture, 176(3): 227-235. DOI: 10.1016/S0044-8486(99)00085-X
Avnimelech, Y., 2006. Bio-filters: the need for a new comprehensive approach. Aquacultural engineering, 34(3): 172-178. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaeng.2005.04.001.
Avnimelech, Y., 2012. Biofloc technology-A Practical Guide Book, 2nd Ed. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.
Azim, M.E. and Little, D.C., 2008. The biofloc technology (BFT) in indoor tanks: water quality, biofloc composition, and growth and welfare of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture, 283(1): 29-35. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.06.036.
Azim, M.E., Little, D.C., Bron, J.E., 2007. Microbial protein production in activated suspension tanks manipulating C:N ratio in feed and the implications for fish culture. Bioresource Technology, 99: 3590-3599. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2007.07.063.
Bossier P, Ekasari J. Biofloc technology application in aquaculture to support sustainable development goals. Microb Biotechnol. 2017 Sep;10(5):1012-1016. doi: 10.1111/1751-7915.12836. Epub 2017 Aug 14. PMID: 28941177; PMCID: PMC5609229.
Crab, R., Defoirdt, T., Bossier, P. and Verstraete, W., 2012. Biofloc technology in aquaculture: beneficial effects and future challenges. Aquaculture, 356: 351-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.04.046
Craig, S., Helfrich, L.A., 2009. Understanding fish nutrition, feeds, and feeding. Virginia State Publication, Cooperative Extension No. 420-256:4, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, USA. : https://pubs.ext.vt.edu/420/420-256.html
De Schryver, P., Crab, R., Defoirdt, T., Boon, N. and Verstraete, W., 2008. The basics of bio-flocs technology: the added value for aquaculture. Aquaculture, 277(3): 125-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.04.046
Dewi1 E.R.S.; Nugroho A.S and Ulfah M. 2020.Water Quality in the Maintenance of Oreochromis niloticus through Environmentally Friendly Biofloc Technology. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 835 (2020) 012008 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1757-899X/835/1/012008
Ekasari, J., Crab, R. and Verstraete, W., 2010. Primary nutritional content of bio-flocs cultured with different organic carbon sources and salinity. HAYATI Journal of Biosciences, 17(3): 125. DOI: 10.4308/hjb.17.3.125
El-Sayed, A.-F.M. Use of biofloc technology in shrimp aquaculture: A comprehensive review, with emphasis on the last decade. Rev. Aquac. 2021, 13, 676–705
Emerenciano, M.G.C., and Cuzon, G., 2013. Biofloc Technology (BFT): A review for aquaculture application and animal food industry. In: Matovic MD (ed) Biomass now - cultivation and utilization. InTech, Rijeka, Croatia: 301–328. : https://www.intechopen.com/books/biomass-now-cultivation-and-utilization/biofloc-technology-bft-a-review-for-aquaculture-application-and-animal-food-industry
Emerenciano, M.G.C., Martínez-Córdova, L.R., Martínez-Porchas, M. and Miranda-Baeza, A., 2017. Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture. In Water Quality. InTech. Rijeka, Croatia: 91-109. https://www.intechopen.com/books/water-quality/biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture
FAO., 2014. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. ISBN 978-92-5-108275-1. FAO Fisheries Department, Rome.
Hargreaves, J.A., 2013. Biofloc production systems for aquaculture. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, publication 4503. United States Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Washington, DC.
Henrici, A.T., 1914. The staining of yeasts by Gram's Method. The Journal of medical research, 30(3): 409-415. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2094430
Hussain, A.S., Mohammad, D.A., Ali, E.M. and Sallam, W.S., 2014. Nutrient Optimization for the Production of Microbial Flocs in Suspended Growth Bioreactors. Journal of the Arabian Aquaculture Society, 9 (1): 113-130. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274311012_ Nutrient_Optimization_for_the_Production_links/551acafb0cf2fdce8437c2cd/Nutrient-Optimization-for-the-Production-of-Microbial-Flocs-in-Suspended-Growth-Bioreactors.pdf
Ibrahim, A.N., Noll, M.S. and Valenti, W.C., 2015. Zooplankton capturing by Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Teleostei: Cichlidae) throughout post-larval development. Zoologia (Curitiba), 32(6): 469-475. DOI:10.1590/s1984-46702015000600006
Kang, K.S., Veeder, G.T., Mirrasoul, P.J., Kaneko, T. and Cottrell, I.W., 1982. Agar-like polysaccharide produced by a Pseudomonas species: production and basic properties. Applied and environmental microbiology, 43(5): 1086-1091. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC244190
Lim, C., Yildirim-Aksoy, M., Li, M.H., Welker, T.L., Klesius, P.H., 2009. Influence of dietary levels of lipid and vitamin E on growth and resistance of Nile tilapia to Streptococcus iniae challenge. Aquaculture, 298: 76-82. . DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.09.025
Long, L., Yang, J., Li, Y., Guan, C. and Wu, F., 2015. Effect of biofloc technology on growth, digestive enzyme activity, hematology, and immune response of genetically improved farmed tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture, 448: 135-141. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.05.017.
Luo, G., Gao, Q., Wang, C., Liu, W., Sun, D., Li, L. and Tan, H., 2014. Growth, digestive activity, welfare, and partial cost-effectiveness of genetically improved farmed tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) cultured in a recirculating aquaculture system and an indoor biofloc system. Aquaculture, 422: 1-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.11.023.
Melaku S., Getahun A, Mengestou S,, Geremew A and Belay A. 2023 Bioflocs Technology in Freshwater Aquaculture: Variations in Carbon Sources and Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratios In book: Aquaculture Industry - Recent Advances and Applications. Publisher: IntechOpen DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.112529
Monroy-Dosta, M., Lara-Andrade, D., Castro-Mejía, J., Castro-Mejía, G., Emerenciano M.G.C., 2013. Composition and abundance of microbial communities associated with biofloc in a tilapia culture. Journal of Marine Biology and Oceanography, 48(3): 511–520. DOI: 10.4067/s0718-19572013000300009
Monroy-Dosta M., Rodríguez-Montes de Oca G., Castro-Mejia J. and Becerril-Cortés D., 2015. Importance and function of microbial communities in aquaculture systems with no water exchange. Scientific Journal of Science, 4:103-110. DOI: 10.14196/sjas.v4i9.1941
Naylor, R.L., Goldburg, R.J., Primavera, J.H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M.C., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troell, M., 2000. Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature, 405(6790): 1017-1024. DOI: 10.1038/35016500
Naylor R.L., Kishore A., Sumaila U.R., Issifu I., Hunter B.P., Belton B., Crona B. (2021). Blue food demand across geographic and temporal scales. Nat. Commun., 12 (1) (2021), pp. 1-14, 10.1038/s41467-021-25516-4
Ogello, E.O., Musa, S.F., Aura, C.M., Abwao, J.O. and Munguti, J.M., 2014. An appraisal of the feasibility of tilapia production in ponds using biofloc technology: A review. International Journal of Aquatic Science, 5(1): 21-39. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/259617878
Peiro-Alcan tar C., Rivas-Vega M.E., Martínez-Porchas M., Lizárraga-Armenta J.A., Miranda-Baeza A and Martínez-Córdova L.R 2019. Effect of adding vegetable substrates on Penaeus vannamei pre-grown in biofloc system on shrimp performance, water quality and biofloc composition. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research [online]. 2019, vol.47, n.5, pp.784-790. ISSN 0718-560X. http://dx.doi.org/10.3856/vol47-issue5-fulltext-7.
Piedrahita, R.H., 2003. Reducing the potential environmental impact of tank aquaculture effluents through intensification and recirculation. Aquaculture, 226(1): 35-44. DOI: 10.1016/S0044-8486(03)00465-4
Ragasa, C., Charo-Karisa, H., Rurangwa, E. et al. Sustainable aquaculture development in sub-Saharan Africa. Nat Food 3, 92–94 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00467-1
Ray A.J., Lewis B.L., Browdy C.L., and Leffler J.W., 2010, Suspended solids removal to improve shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) production and an evaluation of a plant-based feed in minimal-exchange superintensive culture systems, Aquaculture, 299(1-4): 89-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.11.021
Sharma A, Sharma B., Singh R. and Sangotra R (2018).Biotic and biochemical composition of bioflocs cultured in laboratory conditions ijcrt Volume 6, Issue 1 ISSN: 2320-2882
Sharma N., Bania B., Kakati A. and Das P. 2023 Biofloc Technology: Innovative Approach towards Sustainable Aquaculture. Biotica. Research Today 5(1):39-42
Tacon, A.G.J., and Maciocci, G., 1988. The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp-A Training Manual.3. Feeding Methods. FAO Field Document. Projet GCP/RLA/075/ITA, Field Document, 7. Rome.
Waltman, W.D., 2000. Methods for cultural isolation. Salmonella in domestic animals. CAB International, London, UK.
Widanarni, W., Ekasari, J. and Maryam, S., (2012). Evaluation of biofloc technology application on water quality and production performance of Red tilapia Oreochromis sp. cultured at different stocking densities. HAYATI Journal of Biosciences, 19:73–80. https://doi.org/10.4308/hjb.19.2.73
Zablon, W. O., Ogello, E. O., Getabu, A., & Omondi, R. (2022). Biofloc system improves protein utilization efficiency and growth performance of Nile tilapia, (Oreochromis niloticus) fry: Experimental evidence. Aquaculture, Fish and Fisheries, 2(2), 94–103.
Abowei, J.F.N. and Ekubo, A.T., 2011. Some principles and requirements in fish nutrition. British Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 2(4): 163-179. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-7345.2007.00145.x
Avnimelech, Y., 1999. Carbon/nitrogen ratio as a control element in aquaculture systems. Aquaculture, 176(3): 227-235. DOI: 10.1016/S0044-8486(99)00085-X
Avnimelech, Y., 2006. Bio-filters: the need for a new comprehensive approach. Aquacultural engineering, 34(3): 172-178. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaeng.2005.04.001.
Avnimelech, Y., 2012. Biofloc technology-A Practical Guide Book, 2nd Ed. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.
Azim, M.E. and Little, D.C., 2008. The biofloc technology (BFT) in indoor tanks: water quality, biofloc composition, and growth and welfare of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture, 283(1): 29-35. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.06.036.
Azim, M.E., Little, D.C., Bron, J.E., 2007. Microbial protein production in activated suspension tanks manipulating C:N ratio in feed and the implications for fish culture. Bioresource Technology, 99: 3590-3599. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2007.07.063.
Bossier P, Ekasari J. Biofloc technology application in aquaculture to support sustainable development goals. Microb Biotechnol. 2017 Sep;10(5):1012-1016. doi: 10.1111/1751-7915.12836. Epub 2017 Aug 14. PMID: 28941177; PMCID: PMC5609229.
Crab, R., Defoirdt, T., Bossier, P. and Verstraete, W., 2012. Biofloc technology in aquaculture: beneficial effects and future challenges. Aquaculture, 356: 351-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.04.046
Craig, S., Helfrich, L.A., 2009. Understanding fish nutrition, feeds, and feeding. Virginia State Publication, Cooperative Extension No. 420-256:4, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, USA. : https://pubs.ext.vt.edu/420/420-256.html
De Schryver, P., Crab, R., Defoirdt, T., Boon, N. and Verstraete, W., 2008. The basics of bio-flocs technology: the added value for aquaculture. Aquaculture, 277(3): 125-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.04.046
Dewi1 E.R.S.; Nugroho A.S and Ulfah M. 2020.Water Quality in the Maintenance of Oreochromis niloticus through Environmentally Friendly Biofloc Technology. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 835 (2020) 012008 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1757-899X/835/1/012008
Ekasari, J., Crab, R. and Verstraete, W., 2010. Primary nutritional content of bio-flocs cultured with different organic carbon sources and salinity. HAYATI Journal of Biosciences, 17(3): 125. DOI: 10.4308/hjb.17.3.125
El-Sayed, A.-F.M. Use of biofloc technology in shrimp aquaculture: A comprehensive review, with emphasis on the last decade. Rev. Aquac. 2021, 13, 676–705
Emerenciano, M.G.C., and Cuzon, G., 2013. Biofloc Technology (BFT): A review for aquaculture application and animal food industry. In: Matovic MD (ed) Biomass now - cultivation and utilization. InTech, Rijeka, Croatia: 301–328. : https://www.intechopen.com/books/biomass-now-cultivation-and-utilization/biofloc-technology-bft-a-review-for-aquaculture-application-and-animal-food-industry
Emerenciano, M.G.C., Martínez-Córdova, L.R., Martínez-Porchas, M. and Miranda-Baeza, A., 2017. Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture. In Water Quality. InTech. Rijeka, Croatia: 91-109. https://www.intechopen.com/books/water-quality/biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture
FAO., 2014. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. ISBN 978-92-5-108275-1. FAO Fisheries Department, Rome.
Hargreaves, J.A., 2013. Biofloc production systems for aquaculture. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, publication 4503. United States Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Washington, DC.
Henrici, A.T., 1914. The staining of yeasts by Gram's Method. The Journal of medical research, 30(3): 409-415. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2094430
Hussain, A.S., Mohammad, D.A., Ali, E.M. and Sallam, W.S., 2014. Nutrient Optimization for the Production of Microbial Flocs in Suspended Growth Bioreactors. Journal of the Arabian Aquaculture Society, 9 (1): 113-130. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274311012_ Nutrient_Optimization_for_the_Production_links/551acafb0cf2fdce8437c2cd/Nutrient-Optimization-for-the-Production-of-Microbial-Flocs-in-Suspended-Growth-Bioreactors.pdf
Ibrahim, A.N., Noll, M.S. and Valenti, W.C., 2015. Zooplankton capturing by Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Teleostei: Cichlidae) throughout post-larval development. Zoologia (Curitiba), 32(6): 469-475. DOI:10.1590/s1984-46702015000600006
Kang, K.S., Veeder, G.T., Mirrasoul, P.J., Kaneko, T. and Cottrell, I.W., 1982. Agar-like polysaccharide produced by a Pseudomonas species: production and basic properties. Applied and environmental microbiology, 43(5): 1086-1091. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC244190
Lim, C., Yildirim-Aksoy, M., Li, M.H., Welker, T.L., Klesius, P.H., 2009. Influence of dietary levels of lipid and vitamin E on growth and resistance of Nile tilapia to Streptococcus iniae challenge. Aquaculture, 298: 76-82. . DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.09.025
Long, L., Yang, J., Li, Y., Guan, C. and Wu, F., 2015. Effect of biofloc technology on growth, digestive enzyme activity, hematology, and immune response of genetically improved farmed tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture, 448: 135-141. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.05.017.
Luo, G., Gao, Q., Wang, C., Liu, W., Sun, D., Li, L. and Tan, H., 2014. Growth, digestive activity, welfare, and partial cost-effectiveness of genetically improved farmed tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) cultured in a recirculating aquaculture system and an indoor biofloc system. Aquaculture, 422: 1-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.11.023.
Melaku S., Getahun A, Mengestou S,, Geremew A and Belay A. 2023 Bioflocs Technology in Freshwater Aquaculture: Variations in Carbon Sources and Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratios In book: Aquaculture Industry - Recent Advances and Applications. Publisher: IntechOpen DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.112529
Monroy-Dosta, M., Lara-Andrade, D., Castro-Mejía, J., Castro-Mejía, G., Emerenciano M.G.C., 2013. Composition and abundance of microbial communities associated with biofloc in a tilapia culture. Journal of Marine Biology and Oceanography, 48(3): 511–520. DOI: 10.4067/s0718-19572013000300009
Monroy-Dosta M., Rodríguez-Montes de Oca G., Castro-Mejia J. and Becerril-Cortés D., 2015. Importance and function of microbial communities in aquaculture systems with no water exchange. Scientific Journal of Science, 4:103-110. DOI: 10.14196/sjas.v4i9.1941
Naylor, R.L., Goldburg, R.J., Primavera, J.H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M.C., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troell, M., 2000. Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature, 405(6790): 1017-1024. DOI: 10.1038/35016500
Naylor R.L., Kishore A., Sumaila U.R., Issifu I., Hunter B.P., Belton B., Crona B. (2021). Blue food demand across geographic and temporal scales. Nat. Commun., 12 (1) (2021), pp. 1-14, 10.1038/s41467-021-25516-4
Ogello, E.O., Musa, S.F., Aura, C.M., Abwao, J.O. and Munguti, J.M., 2014. An appraisal of the feasibility of tilapia production in ponds using biofloc technology: A review. International Journal of Aquatic Science, 5(1): 21-39. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/259617878
Peiro-Alcan tar C., Rivas-Vega M.E., Martínez-Porchas M., Lizárraga-Armenta J.A., Miranda-Baeza A and Martínez-Córdova L.R 2019. Effect of adding vegetable substrates on Penaeus vannamei pre-grown in biofloc system on shrimp performance, water quality and biofloc composition. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research [online]. 2019, vol.47, n.5, pp.784-790. ISSN 0718-560X. http://dx.doi.org/10.3856/vol47-issue5-fulltext-7.
Piedrahita, R.H., 2003. Reducing the potential environmental impact of tank aquaculture effluents through intensification and recirculation. Aquaculture, 226(1): 35-44. DOI: 10.1016/S0044-8486(03)00465-4
Ragasa, C., Charo-Karisa, H., Rurangwa, E. et al. Sustainable aquaculture development in sub-Saharan Africa. Nat Food 3, 92–94 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00467-1
Ray A.J., Lewis B.L., Browdy C.L., and Leffler J.W., 2010, Suspended solids removal to improve shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) production and an evaluation of a plant-based feed in minimal-exchange superintensive culture systems, Aquaculture, 299(1-4): 89-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.11.021
Sharma A, Sharma B., Singh R. and Sangotra R (2018).Biotic and biochemical composition of bioflocs cultured in laboratory conditions ijcrt Volume 6, Issue 1 ISSN: 2320-2882
Sharma N., Bania B., Kakati A. and Das P. 2023 Biofloc Technology: Innovative Approach towards Sustainable Aquaculture. Biotica. Research Today 5(1):39-42
Tacon, A.G.J., and Maciocci, G., 1988. The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp-A Training Manual.3. Feeding Methods. FAO Field Document. Projet GCP/RLA/075/ITA, Field Document, 7. Rome.
Waltman, W.D., 2000. Methods for cultural isolation. Salmonella in domestic animals. CAB International, London, UK.
Widanarni, W., Ekasari, J. and Maryam, S., (2012). Evaluation of biofloc technology application on water quality and production performance of Red tilapia Oreochromis sp. cultured at different stocking densities. HAYATI Journal of Biosciences, 19:73–80. https://doi.org/10.4308/hjb.19.2.73
Zablon, W. O., Ogello, E. O., Getabu, A., & Omondi, R. (2022). Biofloc system improves protein utilization efficiency and growth performance of Nile tilapia, (Oreochromis niloticus) fry: Experimental evidence. Aquaculture, Fish and Fisheries, 2(2), 94–103.
Published
2023-11-27
How to Cite
1.
Nambeye E, Valeta J, Jere W, Kang’ombe J, Chibinga O, Kanyinji F. A Qualitative and Biochemical Analysis of Biofloc from an Indoor Biofloc Technology System Culturing Oreochromis Karongae. Journal of Agricultural and Biomedical Sciences [Internet]. 27Nov.2023 [cited 26Dec.2024];7(2). Available from: https://humanities.unza.zm/index.php/JABS/article/view/1121
Section
Agriculture Sciences
Copyright: ©️ JABS. Articles in this journal are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.